:confused: السلام عليكم ******أناطالب سنة أولى عمارة وأريد منكم المساعدة لوتكرمتم ، يريدون في الجامعة بحث عن علم العمارة وبأنني لازلت في السنة الأولى ليست لدي أي معلومات عن البحوث المعمارية .فأرجوا من الأخوة الأعزاء مساعدتي في الحصول على هذا البحث .
ولكم مني جزيل الشكر

أهلا وسهلا بك أخي بين إخوانك

أخي الكريم يوجد في الموقع تعريف عن العمارة ومجالاتها ليس عليك إلا البحث في شريط البحث وستجد ما تريد
أو حدد شئ بالضبط وإن شاء الله بنساعدك

شكرا أخي أمجد عالمرور أولا ،،،،،،،،،،

موضوعي هو في علم العمارة ، يعني بيكون موضوع شامل عن العمارة ،وإني بحتت في الغوغل ولم أجد المطلوب .

وشكرا مرة أخى

1. The art and science of designing and erecting buildings.
2. Buildings and other large structures: the low, brick-and-adobe architecture of the Southwest.
3. A style and method of design and construction: Byzantine architecture.
4. Orderly arrangement of parts; structure: the architecture of the federal bureaucracy; the architecture of a novel.
5. Computer Science. The overall design or structure of a computer system, including the hardware and the software required to run it, especially the internal structure of the microprocessor.
[Latin architectūra, from architectus, architect. See architect.]
architectural ar'chi•tec'tur•al adj.
architecturally ar'chi•tec'tur•al•ly adv.


Real Estate Terms
Directory > Business > Real Estate Terms > architecture
Architecture
The manner in which a building is constructed, including the layout, Floor Plan style and appearance, materials used, and the building technology used.
Example: The architecture of the houses in the neighborhood is characteristic of the design common to the 1930s: small rooms, much attention to detail, an elaborate Facade high ceilings, and thick walls.

Britannica
Directory > Reference > Britannica Concise > architecture
architecture
Art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. The practice of architecture emphasizes spatial relationships, orientation, the support of activities to be carried out within a designed environment, and the arrangement and visual rhythm of structural elements, as opposed to the design of structural systems themselves (see civil engineering). Appropriateness, uniqueness, a sensitive and innovative response to functional requirements, and a sense of place within its surrounding physical and social context distinguish a built environment as representative of a culture's architecture. See also building construction.
For more information on architecture, visit Britannica.com.

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Encyclopedia
Directory > Reference > Encyclopedia > architecture
architecture, the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.
The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.
Until the 20th cent. there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel, or trabeated, system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th cent. new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures.
See also articles under countries, e.g., American architecture; styles, e.g., baroque; periods, e.g., Gothic architecture and art; individual architects, e.g., Andrea Palladio; individual stylistic and structural elements, e.g., tracery, orientation; specific building types, e.g., pagoda, apartment house.
Architecture of the Ancient World
In Egyptian architecture, to which belong some of the earliest extant structures to be called architecture (erected by the Egyptians before 3000 B.C.), the post-and-lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone columnar buildings in history. The architecture of W Asia from the same era employed the same system; however, arched construction was also known and used. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, dependent upon clay as their chief material, built vaulted roofs of damp mud bricks that adhered to form a solid shell.
After generations of experimentation with buildings of limited variety the Greeks gave to the simple post-and-lintel system the purest, most perfect expression it was to attain (see Parthenon; orders of architecture). Roman architecture, borrowing and combining the columns of Greece and the arches of Asia, produced a wide variety of monumental buildings throughout the Western world. Their momentous invention of concrete enabled the imperial builders to exploit successfully the vault construction of W Asia and to cover vast unbroken floor spaces with great vaults and domes, as in the rebuilt Pantheon (2d cent. A.D.; see under pantheon).
The Evolution of Styles in the Christian Era
The Romans and the early Christians also used the wooden truss for roofing the wide spans of their basilica halls. Neither Greek, Chinese, nor Japanese architecture used the vault system of construction. However, in the Asian division of the Roman Empire, vault development continued; Byzantine architects experimented with new principles and developed the pendentive, used brilliantly in the 6th cent. for the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
The Romanesque architecture of the early Middle Ages was notable for strong, simple, massive forms and vaults executed in cut stone. In Lombard Romanesque (11th cent.) the Byzantine concentration of vault thrusts was improved by the device of ribs and of piers to support them. The idea of an organic supporting and buttressing skeleton of masonry (see buttress), here appearing in embryo, became the vitalizing aim of the medieval builders. In 13th-century Gothic architecture it emerged in perfected form, as in the Amiens and Chartres cathedrals.
The birth of Renaissance architecture (15th cent.) inaugurated a period of several hundred years in Western architecture during which the multiple and complex buildings of the modern world began to emerge, while at the same time no new and compelling structural conceptions appeared. The forms and ornaments of Roman antiquity were resuscitated again and again and were ordered into numberless new combinations, and structure served chiefly as a convenient tool for attaining these effects. The complex, highly decorated baroque style was the chief manifestation of the 17th-century architectural aesthetic. The Georgian style was among architecture's notable 18th-century expressions (see Georgian architecture). The first half of the 19th cent. was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival.
New World, New Architectures
The architects of the later 19th cent. found themselves in a world being reshaped by science, industry, and speed. A new eclecticism arose, such as the architecture based on the École des Beaux-Arts, and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States. The needs of a new society pressed them, while steel, reinforced concrete, and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal.
After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation, modern architecture, often called the International style, produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings, often steel substructures sheathed in glass. The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture. As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow, 20th-century architecture often approached engineering, and modern works of engineering—airplane hangars, for example—often aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty. More recently, postmodern architecture (see postmodernism), which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods, has become an international movement.
Bibliography
See T. Hamlin, Architecture through the Ages (rev. ed. 1953); N. Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture (16th ed. 1960); S. Kostof, A History of Architecture: Settings & Rituals (1985); M. Trachtenberg and I. Hyman, Architecture: From Pre-History to Post-Modernism (1986); H. A. Millon, Key Monuments of the History of Architecture (1964); A. E. Richardson and H. O. Corfiato, The Art of Architecture (3d ed. 1972); S. F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, A History of Architecture (1946, repr. 1972); J. Fleming et al., The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture (rev. ed. 1973); C. Harris, Dictionary of Architecture and Construction (rev. ed. 1988); K. Frampton, Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture (1996).
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American History
Directory > Reference > American History > architecture
Architecture
From its colonial and Native American origins unto the present day, American architecture has been exceptionally complex, both in the multiple traditions from which it has drawn and in the variations of style and public response it has produced. Architecture has also been caught up in the commercial domain. Major commercial buildings--business blocks and department stores in the nineteenth century, office towers and shopping malls in the twentieth--dominate the public domain of most cities. There has been no official patronage of certain firms for governmental commissions. Instead architects compete for most jobs; they must sell their skills and new ideas to the public; and they constantly vie with builders, who still produce the bulk of new housing and commercial buildings in this country. Efforts to promote hegemonic styles and master architects, though continually asserted, have never fully prevailed.
When the first European settlers arrived in the New World, some two hundred nations of Native Americans had already developed their own architectural traditions. The pueblo, hogan, longhouse, and tipi remain evocative images. Likewise, the colonialists' Spanish mission and the clapboard-sided New England dwelling of the seventeenth century endure as romantic prototypes in many parts of the country, suggesting a synthesis of local cultures into an idealized homogeneous society--a recurring theme in American cultural history.
The New England and Spanish colonies at first required settlements to be grouped in towns, close to a central plaza or meetinghouse square for governmental and religious structures, reinforcing social and architectural homogeneity. In time the abundance of land and the social constraints of these societies spun off new settlements and eventually isolated farmsteads. All the same, architecture remained a significant social act that reinforced community ties, even in the sparsely settled southern colonies. The planning and construction of a major building, whether an aristocratic home or a parish church, involved considerable deliberation, time, and effort on the part of many people.
By the time of the Revolution the American colonies still had no trained architects. Journeymen carpenters designed and built most structures, but gentlemen amateurs often undertook their own estates, following the English tradition that regarded architecture as one of the refined arts. Both groups looked to English architectural books and builders' guides for counsel. They adapted the fashion of neoclassicism to their own circumstances, usually building in wood and simplifying the detailing in a style we have come to call Federal. Especially admirable was the work of Boston's Charles Bulfinch.
Thomas Jefferson envisioned his major architectural works--Monticello (1772, 1789-1809), the Virginia State Capitol (1785-1796), and the University of Virginia (1817-1826)--as prototypes for the new nation. Looking to Enlightenment ideals of social reform, Jefferson believed that the right environment could uplift minds and promote civic virtue. The nation's first professional architect, the E

civic virtue. The nation's first professional architect, the English émigré Benjamin Latrobe, aspired to similar ideals, hoping that moral purpose would enhance professional prerogatives. He designed the Bank of Pennsylvania (1798-1800) and the Baltimore Cathedral (1804-1821), but he was even more appreciated for his engineering skills, most evident in the Philadelphia water system (1798-1801).
The early nineteenth century witnessed an extraordinary rate of urbanization, with a plethora of new banks, exchanges, public markets, and commercial buildings. Despite the absence of any form of public regulation, distinct districts appeared, including elegant blocks of colonnaded row houses and the first multifamily tenements and lodging houses. A greater homogeneity of styles was visible, in both dwellings and public buildings; yet variations in details, materials, and even the arrangement of blocks maintained the particularity of cities such as Savannah, Charleston, Baltimore, Boston, and Cincinnati.
Among the buildings that attracted the most attention were asylums--prisons, orphanages, almshouses, mental hospitals, and the like--now removed to the outskirts of cities where it was possible to have a carefully controlled environment. John Haviland's Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia (1823-1826), with its radial arrangement of cell blocks around a central control station, was one of the first instances of American architecture influencing European design.
A belief in reform through the environment also fueled the park movement, beginning with the rural cemeteries of the 1830s and culminating in Frederick Law Olmsted's majestic Central Park (1857-1880). The parks provided a respite within the commercial city, a place designed for leisure, recreation, nature, and social intermixing. Olmsted, a major figure in American intellectual and reform circles, elaborated the idea of landscaped "parkways" to connect a coordinated park system, most notably the Emerald Necklace for the city of Boston, designed with Charles Eliot (1889). Some of Olmsted's numerous other commissions suggest the wide range of late-nineteenth-century residential settings which saw moral purpose in planned natural beauty: Riverside, Illinois (1868), a bucolic suburb outside Chicago; Riverside Drive, New York (1888); Stanford University (1888); and Vandergrift, Pennsylvania (1895), a planned factory town for the Apollo Steel Company.
What Olmsted accomplished in site planning, others parlayed into architectural design. A distinctive and original American architectural fashion--later named the Shingle Style--emerged in the suburban and resort work of such architects as Henry H. Richardson, William Ralph Emerson, and Willis Polk. Residences were self-consciously individualized, combining diverse materials and architectural elements with a rambling floor plan. Post-Civil War industrialization allowed this style to proliferate, with the factory production of building materials and ornament, inexpensive pattern books with abundant illustrations, and electric streetcars to facilitate commuting. Yet stylistic diversity persisted. These same decades also produced museums, libraries, and sumptuous homes in the manner of Renaissance palazzi or medieval castles--the most grandiose by Richard Morris Hunt and the firm of McKim, Mead, and White.
Business districts were being transformed by another architectural innovation, similarly the product of technological advances and artistic creation: the skyscraper. Beginning in the 1880s, architects and engineers in Chicago and New York began to experiment with new framing systems to achieve greater height, as well as an appropriate elevation for these taller buildings--at first only ten and then soon twenty stories high. The contrast among these buildings soon produced a new way of experiencing cities, captured in the term skyline, first used in Harper's in 1896 to describe Lower Manhattan. Louis H. Sullivan designed the most stunning compositions, clarifying a tripartite elevation, much like an enormous Greek column, and Daniel Burnham's name became synonymous with the corporate office, whereby scores of variations on a basic prototype were built in cities around the country.
At the turn of the century private business organizations prodded municipalities to build majestic civic centers. Washington, D.C., underwent such a change in 1902, epitomizing the fascination with comprehensive urban design. In San Francisco, Denver, Chicago, and dozens of other cities, large and small, the City Beautiful movement commissioned Beaux-Arts museums and libraries alongside new city halls for the governments espoused by progressive reformers.
Businesses undertook other major changes on their own initiative, generating new kinds of commissions for architects. In Detroit, Albert Kahn almost single-handedly transformed the American factory into a sprawling industrial plant for automobile assembly lines. John Nolen and Ernest Flagg experimented with planned industrial towns and model tenement buildings. Movie houses and theaters evoked new flights of fantasy, especially the creations of Rapp & Rapp, Thomas Lamb, and Joseph Urban. Art Deco or "moderne" detailing enlivened department stores and other buildings oriented toward consumers.
Architectural debate still focused on the proportions and style of the façade, hoping to find a "correct" formula. The diversity of taste and opinions became manifest in the 1922 competition for the Tribune Tower in Chicago. Over 250 entries were submitted, with the winning design a Gothic fantasy by Howells & Hood.
New York's zoning regulations of 1916 suggested the need to control the height and use of buildings, protecting the public interest and assuring investors of future stability. The result was a new skyscraper style in which a series of set-backs maximized light and air. As commercial buildings grew larger, they also accommodated more activities. This process of coordinated concentration culminated in three blocks of intricate spaces for varied uses at New York's Rockefeller Center (Reinhard & Hofmeister with Harvey Wiley Corbett and Raymond Hood, 1927-1935).
In 1932 a seminal exhibition, Modern Architecture, at New York's Museum of Modern Art sought to establish a new canon. This austere, functional approach, supposedly anonymous and oblivious to the traditions of place, came to be called the International Style. A minor part of the exhibition (Lewis Mumford was curator) alluded to housing reform, a central aspect of modernism in Europe. Under the impetus of the New Deal, the government produced a range of modern buildings, usually designed under the auspices of federal agencies, including the TVA complexes in Appalachia, WPA service buildings across the country, Greenbelt towns, and PWA housing projects--of which Oskar Stonorov and Albert Kastner's Carl Mackley Houses in Philadelphia (1932-1934) were the most ambitious.
At the end of World War II a cooler, more anonymous imagery characterized American skyscraper design, largely derived from the modernist aesthetic of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. The "glass box" epitomized the corporate world of business, including architectural offices such as Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill. The latter firm produced Lever House in New York (1952), the Crown Zellerbach Building in San Francisco (1959), and the Hancock Center (1970) and the 104-story Sears Tower (1974) in Chicago.
Similar themes also characterized residential design. Developers platted winding streets for vast suburban enclaves in the 1920s. Such settlements often adhered to a historical style such as the Spanish or English colonial, as well as covenants and zoning restrictions that proscribed certain ethnic groups or commercial activities. Among the best-known planned communities were the Country Club District outside Kansas City (Edward Tanner for J. C. Nichols, 1922), Sunnyside Gardens in Queens (Stein & Wright for the City Housing Corporation, 1924-1928), and Radburn, New Jersey (Stein & Wright, 1928-1929). Critics admired the combination of architectural, social, and environmental controls, especially the separation of automobile and pedestrian thoroughfares and the distinctive shopping district.
Even more rationalized, large-scale development characterized architecture and building after World War II. The Urban Renewal Act of 1954 provided federal funds for acres of new luxury apartments, office buildings, and convention centers in downtown blighted areas. The prototypical suburb of Levittown, New York, used mass production techniques to produce thousands of identical versions of each year's model home. Entire new towns like Reston, Virginia, and Columbia, Maryland, orchestrated a mixture of housing types and recreational facilities. Victor Gruen's vast mall at Southland, outside Minneapolis (1956), brought suburban shopping and social life under one air-conditioned roof, with abundant parking all around.
The postwar era brought celebrity to several architects, the most revered being Frank Lloyd Wright. Beginning in the Midwest with his early-twentieth-century prairie houses and culminating with the Guggenheim Museum in New York (1956-1959), Wright's long career encompassed virtually every region and building type, as well as continual innovations in both technology and design. Two other "expressionistic" architects of the era also deserve mention. Eero Saarinen's work involved monumental corporate structures, including the General Motors Technical Center outside Detroit (1948-1956) and the TWA Terminal at Kennedy Airport (1956-1962). Louis Kahn represents the more intellectual side of architectural heroism during the 1960s, both in his somewhat stirring but rather opaque statements and in his major commissions: the Richards Medical Research Building in Philadelphia (1957-1961), the Salk Institute at La Jolla (1959-1965), and the Kimball Art Museum in Fort Worth (1966-1972).
Architectural pluralism now became more pronounced than ever. As skyscrapers reached new heights, they displayed an extraordinary variety of colors and ornamental motifs. The reuse of historical buildings became a common spectacle--notably in "festival marketplaces" such as Boston's Quincy Market (built by Alexander Parris in 1826, adapted for the Rouse Company by Benjamin Thompson & Associates in 1974-1978). Robert Venturi's buildings and writings celebrated American popular culture in all its diversity.
Perhaps the most significant example of architecture in the 1980s was New York's Battery Park City. Stanton Eckstut's design guidelines, developed in 1979, broke from the modernist megastructure that had been proposed a decade earlier. Instead he looked to the existing city, adopting its most successful architectural elements, landscaped spaces, and street grid to provide a sense of continuity; a variety of architects and developers were then brought in, so that buildings would display a rich diversity of responses to the architectural controls. The result, in the best of the American architectural tradition, was both exuberant and well planned, romantic and modern.
Bibliography:
William H. Jordy and William H. Pierson, Jr., American Buildings and Their Architects, 4 vols. (1972-1980); Leland M. Roth, A Concise History of American Architecture (1979); Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (1981).
Author:
Gwendolyn Wright
See also Balloon-Frame House; City Planning; Housing; Johnson, Philip; Levittowns; Pei, I. M.; Suburbanization; Sullivan, Louis H.; Urbanization; Wright, Frank Lloyd.
Military
Directory > Military > Military Terms > architecture
architecture
(DOD) A framework or structure that portrays relationships among all the elements of the subject force, system, or activity.



Quotes About
Directory > Words > Quotes About > architecture
Architecture
Quotes:

Architecture is inhabited sculpture. - Constantin Brancusi

Architect. One who drafts a plan of your house, and plans a draft of your money. - Ambrose Bierce

Where do architects and designers get their ideas? The answer, of course, is mainly from other architects and designers, so is it mere casuistry to distinguish between tradition and plagiarism? - Stephen Bayley

When it comes to getting things done, we need fewer architects and more bricklayers. - Colleen C. Barrett

In my experience, if you have to keep the lavatory door shut by extending your left leg, it's modern architecture. - Nancy Banks-Smith

A structure becomes architectural, and not sculptural, when its elements no longer have their justification in nature. - Guillaume Apollinaire
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ده مقال من موقع اتمنى يفيدك اتنا مقرتهوش كله بس هو بيتكلم عن العماره ومفهومها يارب يفيدك